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    AI Overview
    A Time-to-Digital Converter (TDC) for time-dependent single photon counting (TCSPC)
    measures the precise arrival time of single photons relative to a start signal (like a laser pulse), converting these picosecond-level intervals into digital data to build histograms of photon arrival times, crucial for understanding fluorescence decay, quantum key distribution, FLIM, and LiDAR. TDC designs often use Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) with delay lines for high resolution, allowing for accurate time-tagging even at high rates, with solutions ranging from dedicated modules (like qutools' quTAG or PicoQuant's modules) to custom FPGA implementations. 
    How it Works in TCSPC 
    1. Start Signal: An excitation pulse (e.g., from a laser) generates a "start" electrical signal.
    2. Photon Detection: A single photon emitted from the sample is detected by a sensitive detector (like a PMT).
    3. Stop Signal: The detected photon creates a "stop" electrical pulse.
    4. Time Measurement: The TDC measures the tiny time difference (
      Δtdelta t
      Δ𝑡
      ) between the start and stop signals.
    5. Digital Conversion: This analog time interval is converted into a digital number.
    6. Histogramming: Repeated measurements are collected, and a histogram is built to show the probability of a photon arriving at a specific time after the start, revealing the sample's decay characteristics. 
    Key Features & Implementations 
    • Resolution: Picosecond (ps) timing resolution is standard, achieved through coarse/fine counters and tapped delay lines on FPGAs.
    • FPGA-Based: FPGAs offer flexible, cost-effective, high-speed alternatives to ASICs, managing complex timing and high data throughput.
    • Calibration: Essential for correcting inherent TDC non-linearities, often using specialized single-photon techniques to avoid data loss.
    • Dead Time: Critical for avoiding pile-up; good TDCs have short dead times and high count rates (e.g., 12 Mevents/s).
    • Commercial Solutions: Companies like qutools, PicoQuant, Becker & Hickl, and Cronologic provide off-the-shelf TDC modules. 
    Applications 
    • Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging (FLIM)
    • Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)
    • Coincidence Measurements
    • Time-of-Flight (ToF) Mass Spectrometry 
    • A time-to-digital converter with steady calibration through single- ...
      Jun 3, 2024 — A time-to-digital converter with steady calibration through single-photon detection. ... Time-to-Digital Converters (TD...
      arXiv
    • A High Resolution Time-to-Digital Converter on FPGA for
      Abstract of Thesis. A high resolution Time-to-Digital Converter on FPGA for time-correlated. single photon counting. Time-Correlat...
      The George Washington University
    • Time-Taggers & Time-to-Digital Converters - qutools
      State of the art Time-to-Digital Converter Qutools' time tagging devices record timing events in a flexible manner and provide a t...
      qutools
    Show all
    • A time-to-digital converter with steady calibration through single- ...
      Jun 3, 2024 — A time-to-digital converter with steady calibration through single-photon detection. ... Time-to-Digital Converters (TD...
      arXiv
    • A High Resolution Time-to-Digital Converter on FPGA for
      Abstract of Thesis. A high resolution Time-to-Digital Converter on FPGA for time-correlated. single photon counting. Time-Correlat...
      The George Washington University
    • Time-Taggers & Time-to-Digital Converters - qutools
      State of the art Time-to-Digital Converter Qutools' time tagging devices record timing events in a flexible manner and provide a t...
      qutools
    • TimeTagger: The low-cost, mid-resolution time-to-digital converter
      The TimeTagger4 is a low-cost, mid-resolution time-to-digital converter (TDC). It's suitable for applications that require high da...
      cronologic.de
    • Single-Photon Counting - TCSPC / FLIM / Time Taggers
      TDC – Time-to-Digital Converter By sending the photon pulse through one delay chain and the Sync pulse through another the time be...
      Becker & Hickl GmbH
    • Photon Counting and Timing - PicoQuant
      Converters. All PicoQuant timing modules are based on digital timing circuits, called Time-to-Digital Converters (TDC), which faci...
      PicoQuant
    • Time-Correlated Single Photon Counting
      It is important to note that we can but need not actually do TCSPC with single molecules. Sufficient- ly attenuating the light, so...
      Laser 2000 Photonics
    • Counting photons at low temperature with a streaming time-to-digital ...
      Feb 1, 2013 — A time-to-digital converter (TDC) had been configured to acquire several-minute-long streams of data, simplifying the m...
      ScienceDirect.com
    • Calibration Methods for Time-to-Digital Converters - MDPI
      Mar 3, 2023 — 2.2. 2. Average-Bin-Width Calibration Method * The idea of this calibration is to divide the fine TDC into M calibrated...
      MDPI
    • 6.3 Time-correlated Single Photon Counting
      Jan 28, 2021 — head hey shoot out a photon. at that point the computer begins timing. and this is often a voltage ramp. so it will st...
      YouTube·Michael Evans
      58s
    • High Sensitivity Photodetector for Photon-Counting Applications
      Dec 20, 2017 — These are very sensitive detectors typically with an internal gain. The first candidate SPD was the photomultiplier tu...
      IntechOpen
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    IEEE Xplore
    https://ieeexplore.ieee.org › iel8
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    https://ieeexplore.ieee.org › iel8
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    quTAG – Time-to-Digital Converter


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